Return to References: Stereotype Threat factor page.
Numerous measures exist to gain a full picture of a student's learning strengths and challenges. Following are examples of measures used to assess this Learner Factor. These measures should be administered and interpreted by experienced professionals.
Diagnostic Comparisons: (Wasserberg, 2014): Stereotype threat is typically measured by comparing a group of students vulnerable to Stereotype Threat, who take a test and are told the test is diagnostic of their abilities, to a group of students who are also vulnerable to Stereotype Threat and are told the test is non-diagnostic. If students in the “non-threat” group perform better than the students in the “threat” group this is evidence that Stereotype Threat has negatively influenced performance.
Alter, A. L., Aronson, J., Darley, J. M., Rodriguez, C., & Ruble, D. N. (2010). Rising to the threat: Reducing stereotype threat by reframing the threat as a challenge. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 46(1), 166-171.
Aronson, J., Lustina, M.J., Good, C., Keough, K., Steele, C.M., & Brown, J. (1999). When white men can't do math: necessary and sufficient factors in stereotype threat. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 35(1), 29-46.
Beilock, S. L., Rydell, R. J., & McConnell, A. R. (2007). Stereotype threat and working memory: Mechanisms, alleviation, and spillover. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 136(2), 256-276.
Cokley, K., McClain, S., Jones, M., & Johnson, S. (2012). A preliminary investigation of academic disidentification, racial identity, and academic achievement among African American adolescents. The High School Journal, 95(2), 54-68.
Désert, M., Préaux, M., & Jund, R. (2009). So young and already victims of stereotype threat: Socio-economic status and performance of 6 to 9 years old children on Raven's progressive matrices. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 24, 207-218.
Duchesneau, N. (2020). Social, Emotional, and Academic Development through an Equity Lens. Education Trust.
Fry, R., Kennedy, B., & Funk, C. (2021). STEM jobs see uneven progress in increasing gender, racial and ethnic diversity. Pew Research Center, 1-28.
Haft, S. L., Greiner de Magalhães, C., & Hoeft, F. (2023). A Systematic Review of the Consequences of Stigma and Stereotype Threat for Individuals With Specific Learning Disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 56(3), 193-209.
Harrison, L. A., Stevens, C. M., Monty, A. N., & Coakley, C. A. (2006). The consequences of stereotype threat on the academic performance of White and non-White lower income college students. Social Psychology of Education, 9, 341-357.
Hartley, B. L., & Sutton, R. M. (2013). A stereotype threat account of boys' academic underachievement. Child Development, 84(5), 1716-1733.
Hines Shelvin**, K., Rivadeneyra**, R., & Zimmerman**, C. (2014). Stereotype threat in African American children: The role of Black identity and stereotype awareness. Revue Internationale de Psychologie Sociale, 27(3), 175-204.
Master, A., Cheryan, S., Moscatelli, A., & Meltzoff, A. N. (2017). Programming experience promotes higher STEM motivation among first-grade girls. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 160, 92-106.
McKown, C., & Strambler, M. J. (2009). Developmental antecedents and social and academic consequences of stereotype‐consciousness in middle childhood. Child Development, 80(6), 1643-1659.
McKown, C., & Weinstein, R. S. (2003). The development and consequences of stereotype consciousness in middle childhood. Child Development, 74(2), 498–515
Mello, Z. R., Mallett, R. K., Andretta, J. R., & Worrell, F. C. (2012). Stereotype threat and school belonging in adolescents from diverse racial/ethnic backgrounds. Journal of At-Risk Issues, 17(1), 9-14.
Muntoni, F., & Retelsdorf, J. (2019). At their children's expense: How parents' gender stereotypes affect their children's reading outcomes. Learning and Instruction, 60, 95-103.
Osborne, J. W. (1999). Unraveling underachievement among African American boys from an identification with academics perspective. Journal of Negro Education, 555-565.
Pansu, P.; Régner, I.; Max, S.; Colé, P.; Nezlek, J.B.; & Huguet, P. (2016). A burden for the boys: Evidence of stereotype threat in boys' reading performance. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 65, 26–30.
Pauker, K., Ambady, N., & Apfelbaum, E. P. (2010). Race salience and essentialist thinking in racial stereotype development. Child Development, 81(6), 1799-1813.
Ramirez, G., Fries, L., Gunderson, E., Schaeffer, M. W., Maloney, E. A., Beilock, S. L., & Levine, S. C. (2019). Reading Anxiety: An early affective impediment to children's success in reading. Journal of Cognition and Development, 20(1), 15-34.
Schmader, T. (2010). Stereotype threat deconstructed. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 19(1), 14-18.
Shenouda, C. K., & Danovitch, J. H. (2014). Effects of gender stereotypes and stereotype threat on children's performance on a spatial task. Revue Internationale de Psychologie Sociale, 27(3), 53-77.
Smith, J.L., & White, P.H. (2001). Development of the domain identification measure: A tool for investigating stereotype threat effects. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 61(6), 1040-1057.
Spencer, B., & Castano, E. (2007). Social class is dead. Long live social class! Stereotype threat among low socioeconomic status individuals. Social Justice Research, 20, 418-432.
Spencer, S. J., Logel, C., & Davies, P. G. (2016). Stereotype threat. Annual Review of Psychology, 67, 415-437.
Steele, C. M., & Aronson, J. (1995). Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69(5), 797-811.
Tiedemann, J. (2000). Parents' gender stereotypes and teachers' beliefs as predictors of children's concept of their mathematical ability in elementary school. Journal of Educational Psychology, 92(1), 144.
Wasserberg, M. J. (2014). Stereotype threat effects on African American children in an urban elementary school. The Journal of Experimental Education, 82(4), 502-517.
Wegmann, K. M. (2017). “His skin doesn't match what he wants to do”: Children's perceptions of stereotype threat. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 87(6), 615.
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