Return to References: Visual Processing factor page.
Numerous measures exist to gain a full picture of a student's learning strengths and challenges. Following are examples of measures used to assess this Learner Factor. These measures should be administered and interpreted by experienced professionals.
Computer-Based Vision Tasks: (Boros et al., 2016): Ask students to remember or respond to the spatial position or a specific visual characteristic of either letters, digits, or non-linguistic symbols (this is often important to include so language skills do not impact scores)
Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration: (Beery et al., 2010): Geometric design copying task, starting off with simple forms (e.g. a vertical line) and increasingly becoming more complex (e.g. a 3D star)
Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure Test (ROCF): (Rey, 1941): Evaluates Visual Spatial Processing and memory for visual-spatial information
Block Design subtest (WISC-IV): (Wechsler, 2003): Measures the ability to mentally assemble and analyze abstract visual stimuli in students six to 16 years old.
Assel, M. A., Landry, S. H., Swank, P., Smith, K. E., & Steelman, L. M. (2003). Precursors to mathematical skills: Examining the roles of visual-spatial skills, executive processes, and parenting factors. Applied Developmental Science, 7(1), 27-38.
Banerjee, S., Frey, H. P., Molholm, S., & Foxe, J. J. (2015). Interests shape how adolescents pay attention: The interaction of motivation and top‐down attentional processes in biasing sensory activations to anticipated events. European Journal of Neuroscience, 41(6), 818-834.
Barnhardt, C., Borsting, E., Deland, P., Pham, N., & Vu, T. (2005). Relationship between visual-motor integration and spatial organization of written language and math. Optometry and Vision Science, 82(2), 138–43.
Basch, C. E. (2011). Vision and the achievement gap among urban minority youth. Journal of School Health, 81(10), 599-605.
Bedny, M., Richardson, H., & Saxe, R. (2015). “Visual” cortex responds to spoken language in blind children. Journal of Neuroscience, 35(33), 11674-11681.
Boros, M., Anton, J. L., Pech-Georgel, C., Grainger, J., Szwed, M., & Ziegler, J. C. (2016). Orthographic processing deficits in developmental dyslexia: Beyond the ventral visual stream. NeuroImage, 128, 316-327.
Bosse, M. L., Chaves, N., Largy, P., & Valdois, S. (2015). Orthographic learning during reading: The role of whole‐word visual processing. Journal of Research in Reading, 38(2), 141-158.
Cheng, D., Shi, K., Wang, N., Miao, X., & Zhou, X. (2021). Examining the differential role of general and specific processing speed in predicting mathematical achievement in junior high school. Journal of Intelligence, 10(1), 1.
Cisler, J. M., Esbensen, K., Sellnow, K., Ross, M., Weaver, S., Sartin-Tarm, A., ... & Kilts, C. D. (2019). Differential roles of the salience network during prediction error encoding and facial emotion processing among female adolescent assault victims. Biological Psychiatry: Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuroimaging, 4(4), 371-380.
Cisler, J. M., Steele, J. S., Smitherman, S., Lenow, J. K., & Kilts, C. D. (2013). Neural processing correlates of assaultive violence exposure and PTSD symptoms during implicit threat processing: a network-level analysis among adolescent girls. Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging, 214(3), 238-246.
Collins, J. A., & Olson, I. R. (2014). Knowledge is power: How conceptual knowledge transforms visual cognition. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 21, 843-860.
Cortes, R. A., Peterson, E. G., Kraemer, D. J., Kolvoord, R. A., Uttal, D. H., Dinh, N., ... & Green, A. E. (2022). Transfer from spatial education to verbal reasoning and prediction of transfer from learning-related neural change. Science Advances, 8(31), eabo3555.
Crottaz-Herbette, S., Anagnoson, R. T., & Menon, V. (2004). Modality effects in verbal working memory: differential prefrontal and parietal responses to auditory and visual stimuli. Neuroimage, 21(1), 340-351.
De Bruin, E. J., van Run, C., Staaks, J., & Meijer, A. M. (2017). Effects of sleep manipulation on cognitive functioning of adolescents: A systematic review. Sleep Medicine Reviews, 32, 45-57.
Dehaene, S., Cohen, L., Morais, J., & Kolinsky, R. (2015). Illiterate to literate: Behavioural and cerebral changes induced by reading acquisition. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 16(4), 234-244.
Dunn, W. (1997). The impact of sensory processing abilities on the daily lives of young children and their families: A conceptual model. Infants & Young Children, 9(4), 23-35.
Facoetti, A., Paganoni, P., Turatto, M., Marzola, V., & Mascetti, G. G. (2000). Visual-spatial attention in developmental dyslexia. Cortex, 36(1), 109-123.
Goldstand, S., Koslowe, K. C., & Parush, S. (2005). Vision, visual-information processing, and academic performance among seventh-grade schoolchildren: A more significant relationship than we thought? American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 59(4), 377-389.
Greenberg, A., Bellana, B., & Bialystok, E. (2013). Perspective-taking ability in bilingual children: Extending advantages in executive control to spatial reasoning. Cognitive Development, 28(1), 41-50.
Hodgkiss, A., Gilligan, K. A., Tolmie, A. K., Thomas, M. S., & Farran, E. K. (2018). Spatial cognition and science achievement: The contribution of intrinsic and extrinsic spatial skills from 7 to 11 years. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 88(4), 675-697.
Huguet, P., & Regner, I. (2007). Stereotype threat among schoolgirls in quasi-ordinary classroom circumstances. Journal of Educational Psychology, 99(3), 545.
Kaefer, T. (2018). The role of topic‐related background knowledge in visual attention to illustration and children's word learning during shared book reading. Journal of Research in Reading, 41(3), 582-596.
Lack, D. (2010). Another joint statement regarding learning disabilities, dyslexia, and vision—A rebuttal. Optometry-Journal of the American Optometric Association, 81(10), 533-543.
Lobier, M., Zoubrinetzky, R., & Valdois, S. (2012). The visual attention span deficit in dyslexia is visual and not verbal. Cortex, 48(6), 768-773.
McGlone, M. S., & Aronson, J. (2006). Stereotype threat, identity salience, and spatial reasoning. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 27(5), 486-493.
Megreya, A. M., & Bindemann, M. (2017). A visual processing advantage for young-adolescent deaf observers: Evidence from face and object matching tasks. Scientific reports, 7(1), 41133.
Peterson, E. G., Weinberger, A. B., Uttal, D. H., Kolvoord, B., & Green, A. E. (2020). Spatial activity participation in childhood and adolescence: consistency and relations to spatial thinking in adolescence. Cognitive Research: Principles and Implications, 5(1), 1-13.
Pieters, S., Desoete, A., Roeyers, H., Vanderswalmen, R., & Van Waelvelde, H. (2012). Behind mathematical learning disabilities: What about visual perception and motor skills? Learning and Individual Differences, 22(4), 498–504.
Santiago, H. C. (2011). Visual Mapping to Enhance Learning and Critical Thinking Skills. Optometric Education, 36(3).
Shenouda, C. K., & Danovitch, J. H. (2014). Effects of gender stereotypes and stereotype threat on children's performance on a spatial task. Revue Internationale de Psychologie Sociale, 27(3), 53-77.
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Sortor, J. M., & Kulp, M. T. (2003). Are the results of the Beery-Buktenica Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration and its subtests related to achievement test scores? Optometry & Vision Science, 80(11), 758-763.
Sulik, M. J., Haft, S. L., & Obradović, J. (2018). Visual-motor integration, executive functions, and academic achievement: concurrent and longitudinal relations in late elementary school. Early Education and Development, 29(7), 956-970.
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van Hoof, M. J., van den Bulk, B. G., Rombouts, S. A., Rinne-Albers, M. A., van der Wee, N. J., van IJzendoorn, M. H., & Vermeiren, R. R. (2017). Emotional face processing in adolescents with childhood sexual abuse-related posttraumatic stress disorder, internalizing disorders and healthy controls. Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging, 264, 52-59.
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White, A. L., Boynton, G. M., & Yeatman, J. D. (2019). The link between reading ability and visual spatial attention across development. Cortex, 121, 44-59.
Wai, J., Lubinski, D., & Benbow, C. P. (2009). Spatial ability for STEM domains: Aligning over 50 years of cumulative psychological knowledge solidifies its importance. Journal of Educational Psychology, 101(4), 817.
Zacharopoulos, G., Binetti, N., Walsh, V., & Kanai, R. (2014). The effect of self-efficacy on visual discrimination sensitivity. PloS one, 9(10), e109392.
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