Return to References: Visual Processing factor page.
Numerous measures exist to gain a full picture of a student's learning strengths and challenges. Following are examples of measures used to assess this Learner Factor. These measures should be administered and interpreted by experienced professionals.
Computer-Based Vision Tasks: (Boros et al., 2016): Ask students to remember or respond to the spatial position or a specific visual characteristic of either letters, digits, or non-linguistic symbols (this is often important to include so language skills do not impact scores).
Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration: (Beery & Beery., 2010): Geometric design copying task, starting off with simple forms (e.g. a vertical line) and increasingly becoming more complex (e.g. a 3D star).
Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure Test (ROCF): (Rey, 1941): Evaluates Visual Spatial Processing and memory for visual-spatial information.
Children's Mental Transformation Task (CMTT): **: (Levine et al., 1999): Assesses Spatial Skills in students aged four to seven.
Assel, M. A., Landry, S. H., Swank, P., Smith, K. E., & Steelman, L. M. (2003). Precursors to mathematical skills: Examining the roles of visual-spatial skills, executive processes, and parenting factors. Applied Developmental Science, 7(1), 27-38.
Barnhardt, C., Borsting, E., Deland, P., Pham, N., & Vu, T. (2005). Relationship between visual-motor integration and spatial organization of written language and math. Optometry and Vision Science, 82(2), 138–43.
Bedny, M., Richardson, H., & Saxe, R. (2015). “Visual” cortex responds to spoken language in blind children. Journal of Neuroscience, 35(33), 11674-11681.
Berchicci, M., Pontifex, M. B., Drollette, E. S., Pesce, C., Hillman, C. H., & Di Russo, F. (2015). From cognitive motor preparation to visual processing: The benefits of childhood fitness to brain health. Neuroscience, 298, 211-219.
Bleichrodt, N., Drenth, P. J. D., Zaal, J. N., & Resing, W. C. M. (1988). RAKIT: Revisie Amsterdamse Kinder Intelligentie Test. Swets & Zeitlinger.
Boros, M., Anton, J. L., Pech-Georgel, C., Grainger, J., Szwed, M., & Ziegler, J. C. (2016). Orthographic processing deficits in developmental dyslexia: Beyond the ventral visual stream. NeuroImage, 128, 316-327.
Bosse, M. L., Chaves, N., Largy, P., & Valdois, S. (2015). Orthographic learning during reading: The role of whole‐word visual processing. Journal of Research in Reading, 38(2), 141-158.
Crottaz-Herbette, S., Anagnoson, R. T., & Menon, V. (2004). Modality effects in verbal working memory: differential prefrontal and parietal responses to auditory and visual stimuli. Neuroimage, 21(1), 340-351.
Dehaene, S., Cohen, L., Morais, J., & Kolinsky, R. (2015). Illiterate to literate: Behavioural and cerebral changes induced by reading acquisition. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 16(4), 234-244.
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Facoetti, A., Paganoni, P., Turatto, M., Marzola, V., & Mascetti, G. G. (2000). Visual-spatial attention in developmental dyslexia. Cortex, 36(1), 109-123.
Feagans, L. V., & Merriwether, A. (1990). Visual discrimination of letter-like forms and its relationship to achievement over time in children with learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 23(7), 417-425.
Franceschini, S., Gori, S., Ruffino, M., Pedrolli, K., & Facoetti, A. (2012). A causal link between visual spatial attention and reading acquisition. Current Biology, 22(9), 814-819.
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Hodgkiss, A., Gilligan, K. A., Tolmie, A. K., Thomas, M. S., & Farran, E. K. (2018). Spatial cognition and science achievement: The contribution of intrinsic and extrinsic spatial skills from 7 to 11 years. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 88(4), 675-697.
James, K. H. (2010). Sensori‐motor experience leads to changes in visual processing in the developing brain. Developmental Science, 13(2), 279-288.
Kulp, M. T. (1999). Relationship between visual motor integration skill and academic performance in kindergarten through third grade. Optometry & Vision Science, 76(3), 159-163.
Lack, D. (2010). Another joint statement regarding learning disabilities, dyslexia, and vision—A rebuttal. Optometry-Journal of the American Optometric Association, 81(10), 533-543.
Levine, S. C., Goldin‐Meadow, S., Carlson, M. T., & Hemani‐Lopez, N. (2018). Mental transformation skill in young children: The role of concrete and abstract motor training. Cognitive Science, 42(4), 1207-1228.
Lobier, M., Zoubrinetzky, R., & Valdois, S. (2012). The visual attention span deficit in dyslexia is visual and not verbal. Cortex, 48(6), 768-773.
Mazzocco, M. M., & Myers, G. F. (2003). Complexities in identifying and defining mathematics learning disability in the primary school-age years. Annals of Dyslexia, 53, 218-253.
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McCoy, D. C., Roy, A. L., & Raver, C. C. (2016). Neighborhood crime as a predictor of individual differences in emotional processing and regulation. Developmental Science, 19(1), 164-174.
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Sigmundsson, H., Hansen, P. C., & Talcott, J. B. (2003). Do ‘clumsy' children have visual deficits. Behavioural Brain Research, 139(1-2), 123-129.
Sortor, J. M., & Kulp, M. T. (2003). Are the results of the Beery-Buktenica Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration and its subtests related to achievement test scores? Optometry & Vision Science, 80(11), 758-763.
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Ziegler, J. C., Pech‐Georgel, C., Dufau, S., & Grainger, J. (2010). Rapid processing of letters, digits and symbols: What purely visual‐attentional deficit in developmental dyslexia? Developmental Science, 13(4), F8-F14.